Canon

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Giving tests is a task many teachers do not relish. In one particular course on the Bible there was always the question, "What does the word ‘canon' mean?" Answers ranged far and wide, but one was quite imaginative. The student replied, "‘Canon' is a war weapon. It came into use long after the Chinese discovered how to powder!"—Imaginative though erroneous.

However, there is a direct connection between "canon" and testing. In fact, the word "canon" has a history that illustrates this point. "Canon" has linguistic roots in the Hebrew word qaneh, meaning "stalk" (Genesis 41:5), and the Greek word kanon (Galatians 6:16). In antiquity a stalk or reed, meaning "rule," was used as a measuring stick. Over the passage of time the meaning of the cane, as measuring rod, was transferred to signify what had been measured. For example: A house built with the use of standardized measuring canes was said to be built according to the specifications, that is, canonized.

The Bible, like the house just mentioned, has also been canonized. It has been brought together according to specifications—finalized. Therefore, when we open a Bible today that has been canonized for well over 1,500 years we do not expect to find a document called the "Magna Charta" or the "Constitution of the United States of America ." Neither do we expect to find excerpts from the Book of Mormon or the Koran. Whether we have actually thought about it, we expect to find a specific number of documents which are clearly identified as Biblical documents. This is a rational expectation because we are speaking of a Canon of Scripture when we speak of the Bible; that is, a corpus of writings which "stood the test" while other writings were rejected.

When we open the Bible, we find there are many things set forth for us either by command or example, with reference to the Scriptures. For examples: Live by God's Word (Deuteronomy 8:3b; Matthew 4:4). Be enlightened by God's Word (Psalm 119:105). Handle God's Word accurately (2 Timothy 2:15). Do not merely listen; do the Word of God (James 1:22). Believe the Scriptures (John 2:22). Examine the Scriptures (Acts 1:11).

All of this carries with it two great principles. First, the Scriptures speak with God's authority. Second, they are final. The Bible is unique in this regard. No other book can successfully be presented as having God's authority and containing His final written Word. Since the Bible speaks with God's authority, we do not take it lightly. Since the Scriptures, themselves, insist they are God's final Word, we do not, and cannot, accept additional writings purporting to be from Him.

But how are we to know that the Bible contains nothing more or less than God's completed Word? How has it come about that we cherish the Bible as the only written revelation of God's will? The answer to that question comes from three dimensions—eternity, past, and present. Our God whose Word we are considering, is eternal. He revealed Himself out of eternity by creation. He revealed Himself in history by mighty deeds, and by His incarnate Son. He reveals Himself today by His written Word, the Bible. By this means we know the significance of God's creation, His Son, His sovereignty over us, and His will for us.

We have studied revelation, inspiration, and providence. All of these are activities of God, and they all apply to the Scriptures. God's revelation and inspiration produced the Scriptures. By His providence they were brought together into the book we call the Bible. Our belief that the Bible is the inspired, complete, and accurate Word of God is a faith based upon the Word of God, itself (Romans 10:17). However, it is not a blind or naïve faith. It is a reasonable faith. The historical accuracy of the Bible has been vouchsafed by a vast array of evidence from archaeology, language studies, and related disciplines.

However, it cannot be said that the canon of Scripture is the result of God's revelation and inspiration. Rather, our present canon of Scripture is the result of God's providence. Although this is accepted on the basis of faith, the canonization process can be historically traced. This is reassuring, since the process was carried on and completed by uninspired men. We need to remember that "canon," in the context of our study, means Scriptures that "stood the test." "The test" has been described as follows:

1. Divine authorship. Inspiration—is it inspired? Was it given by God through the Spirit through men; or did it come from man alone?

2. Human authorship. Was it written, edited, or endorsed by a prophet, or spokesman for God?

3. Genuineness. Is it genuine? Can it be traced back to the time and to the writer from whom it professes to have come? Or, if the writer cannot be named positively, can it be shown to contain the same matter, in every essential point, as it contained when written?

4. Authenticity. Is it authentic? Is it true? Is it a record of actual facts?

Each of these tests should be considered separately. The first two, however, dealing with divine authorship and human authorship and endorsement, are sufficiently strong to settle the question of canonicity and authority. And if a book is inspired of God it must be genuine and authentic; He does not inspire deceptions and falsehoods.

Of course, testing implies that decisions had to be made. Some writings produced during Biblical times were not accepted as "Biblical." This is obvious from the Scriptures themselves (Luke 1:1-4; 2 Thessalonians 2:1-2). This decision-making process extended over several centuries. The broad historical developments are apparent. From the beginning of the process, the over-riding principle for accepting a document as canonical was authority. Was it from God, that is, God-breathed? If the answer was affirmative, it was accepted. But who made these momentous decisions? History gives us satisfactory clues. In fact the very question of the Biblical canon is an historical question. The answers available are historical answers.

The Old Testament text frequently emphasized that God's Word was to be written down and kept. This indicates a specific body of authoritative literature which the people received, obeyed, preserved, and passed on. Examples are plentiful. Moses was command to write God's Word on many occasions (Exodus 24:3-4; 34:27-28; Deuteronomy 31:9).

During the days of Joshua these writings were referred to as "the law which Moses My servant commanded you." Joshua was enjoined to be familiar with the "book of the law" and "to do according to all that is written in it" (Joshua 1:7-8). The entire "Book of the Law" was kept before the people (Joshua 8:32, 34-35).

It was also required that when a king reigned over God's people he was to "write for himself a copy of this law on a scroll in the presence of the Levitical priests." He was to read and observe it in order to "learn to fear the Lord his God…" (Deuteronomy 17:18-19). During a low ebb in the history of the kingdom of Judah , the book of the law was found in the "house of the Lord" when some repair work was being done. When King Josiah heard the law read, he realized the sinful condition of his kingdom. The law was read to all the people. As a result, an extensive reform was launched based upon what was written in the law (2 Kings 22:8, 11, 13; 23:1-3).

Also, the prophets were involved in writing God's Word for their own day, and also for posterity (Isaiah 30:8; Jeremiah 30:1-3).

In the Psalms one finds great reverence and love for the "law of the Lord," as well as a solemn commitment to it. The most lengthily example in the Bible is Psalm 119. The Psalmist writes, "O how I love Thy law! It is my meditation all the day" (Psalm 119:97). "Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path" (Psalm 119:105).

After the period of Babylonian captivity, the Persian conquerors of Babylonia allowed the Jews to return to their homeland of Judah . There, under the leadership of Ezra, the Scribe, and Nehemiah the Governor, "the book of Moses" was taught to the people. Its precepts, commands, and statutes were rigorously enforced. The priesthood was cleansed, reorganized and rededicated according to scriptural teachings (Ezra 7:25-26; Nehemiah, chapter 8).

About one thousand years mark the time between the era of Moses and the era of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Malachi. The above examples show that throughout this millennium the Israelites possessed Scriptures written for their guidance, information, and safe-keeping. These Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) were eventually classified into a three-fold arrangement of Torah, (Law), Prophets, and Writings. The examples we have mentioned were selected from these three divisions.

However, the collection of Hebrew Scriptures, and their early arrangement in a tripartite way, did not make them canonical. Canonicity depends upon the revelation, inspiration, and authority of God, as mentioned earlier. Therefore, these Scriptures were not collected into a corpus in order to make them canonical, but as an acknowledgement of their authoritative, God-breathed character.

It is unnecessary to be dogmatic about the dates of the gathering and classification of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) in its final form. However, it is more than probable that the Jews, recognizing the sacred source of their Scriptures, completed the editorializing and classification processes somewhere between 450 B.C. and 250 B.C. There is evidence that during this period there was recognition of a fixed corpus of Hebrew Scriptures. For example: The Hebrew sacred Scriptures were translated into Greek in Alexandria beginning with the Pentateuch in about 250 B.C. Although an elaborate tradition sprang up surrounding this project, the indisputable fact that this translation was done is evidence of the recognized importance of having the Hebrew Scriptures in Greek for a Greek-speaking world (F.F. Bruce, The Books and the Parchments).

It is well to remember that the Hebrew Old Testament Biblical writings already stood in their canonical arrangement when the Greek Septuagint was completed. The Rabbinic Council at Jamnia in 90 A.D. acknowledged, after much debate that their sacred Hebrew Scriptures with which they were concerned had been finalized. Their "Bible" was before them.

Thus, when we refer to the work of Origin and others, as we have, we should remember that their concern for the exactness of the Hebrew Bible was right alongside their interest in the identification and formation of the complete New Testament. This concern is aptly illustrated by Origin who was the greatest Biblical scholar among the Greek Fathers of his era. His list of the canonical Hebrew Bible books, which he numbered as twenty-two, is as follows:

According to his reckoning the five books of Moses are followed by (6) Joshua, then (7) Judges and Ruth (which are reckoned as one among the Hebrews, he says), (8 and 9) and four books of Kingdoms (which among them count as one book of Samuel and one—our 1 and 2 Kings—which they call after its opening words, ‘And King David'). Then (10) Chronicles, reckoned as one, (11) Ezra and Nehemiah as one; (12) Psalms, (13) Proverbs, (14) Ecclesiastes, (15) Song of Songs; (16) Isaiah; (17) Jeremiah with Lamentations and the ‘Epistle of Jeremiah', reckoned as one; (18) Daniel, (19) Ezekiel, (20) Job, (21) Esther. The book of the Twelve Prophets has been omitted from his list—accidentally, of course, because it is required to make up the twenty-two books.

The formation of the New Testament canon was not as complex as that of the Old Testament. First of all, the New Testament is brief compared to the Old Testament. Second, the era during which the New Testament was written was about fifty years, where the Old Testament was written over approximately 1,000 years. However, we shall see that the formation of the New Testament canon was not a short-term process. It is generally agreed that all of the New Testament documents were likely written somewhere between 45 A.D. and 95 A.D. However, evidence of a complete New Testament canon was not quickly forthcoming.

The need for a definitive canon of Scripture arose early. In about the middle of the second century A.D., the heretic Maricon devised a "canon" so drastic that it does not deserve the name. It consisted of a drastically edited Gospel of Luke and his edited versions of Paul's letters, except 1 and 2 Timothy and Titus, which he rejected outright. However, his self-serving censorship of existing sacred texts showed that to defend his false teachings he found it necessary to attack generally accepted Scriptures that were recognized as authoritative. And that is the reason Marcion's short "canon" merit's a footnote in history.

Near the end of the second century Irenaeus became a bishop of the church in Lyons . He was a student of Polycarp, who was taught by John the Apostle. At this early date, Irenaeus showed a canonical recognition of all the New Testament books except Philemon, Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude. The formation of a complete New Testament canon was well on its way.

A mutilated document called the Muratorian Fragment is thought to have been written in the second or third century, A.D. A copy dating from the eighth century was discovered in the Ambrosian Library in Milan by librarian L.A. Muratori, and published in 1740. Counting Matthew and Mark, missing but implied, the document refers to all but four of the New Testament books we now have, those being Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter.

From about mid-third century A.D. until well into the fourth century, the shape of the emerging canon became more specific. Origin of Alexandria lived from 185 A.D. until 254 A.D. He was a notable theologian, commentator, exegete, and textual critic. He classified the writings which were before the church into groups as follows:

Genuine writings were those received by all Christians. They were Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Paul's thirteen letters, 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation.

Other writings were disputed by some in the churches but eventually received by all Christians. They were Hebrews, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, James and Jude.

Origin mentions specific writings accepted by some but disputed by others that never gained sufficient acceptance to be permanently received into the canon. They were the "Epistle of Banabas", The Shepherd of Hermas, the Didache, and the "Gospel according to the Hebrews".

Eusebius lived from about 270 A.D. until 340 A.D. He was a bishop of Caesarea and the church's first great historian. Early in the 4th century he lists all the New Testament books familiar to us except James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 John, and 3 John.

The foregoing sketch shows that from early on the church accepted some twenty New Testament documents as having divine authority. Evaluation continued on five or six for about two centuries. Dozens more were never accepted by the church as inspired Scripture, although some, such as the "Didache" (Teaching of the Twelve Apostles), and the "Shepherd of Hermas," were held in high regard in some places for a time.

The church's recognition of the canonicity of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament that we now possess apparently emerged in the first half of the fourth century A.D. Extra-Biblical evidence for this is found for the first time in a letter to the churches by a bishop of Alexandria named Athanasius. The date was 367 A.D. He was the first to apply the word "canon" to the Scriptures.

Forasmuch as some have taken in hand, to reduce into order for themselves the books termed apocryphal, and to mix them up with the divinely inspired Scriptures…it seemed good to me also…to set before you the books included in the Cannon, and handed down, and accredited as Divine…Again it is not tedious to speak of the books of the New Testament. These are the four Gospels, according to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Afterwards, the Acts of the Apostles and Epistles (called Catholic), seven, viz., of James, one: of Peter, two; of John, three; after these, one of Jude. In addition, there are the fourteen Epistles of Paul, written in this order. The First, to the Romans; then two to the Corinthians; after these, to the Galatians; next, to the Ephesians; then to the Philippians; then to the Colossians; after these, two to the Thessalonians, and that to the Hebrews; and again, two to Timothy, one to Titus; and lastly, that to Philemon. And besides, the Revelation of John (As presented by Raymond F. Collins in: Introduction to the New Testament).

This recognition of the New Testament canon of Scripture was soon acknowledged by church councils. For examples: A church council was held in 393 A.D., in Hippo, North Africa , that acknowledged the canonicity of the twenty-seven books. This was repeated at the third council of Carthage , North Africa , in 397 A.D.

One may wonder why it took so long for the Bible to become a canon of Scripture. Sufficient time had to elapse for the various congregations to come to the conclusion that the Scriptures they accepted were indeed inspired of God, and therefore divinely authoritative. Of course, many writings were rejected. The canon was inclusive; that is all the documents in it were believed by the early Christians to be inspired of God. The canon was also exclusive; that is, no document was admitted, regardless of how highly esteemed by some, if it did not "pass the test."

We may well believe that those early Christians acted by a wisdom higher than their own in this matter, not only in what they accepted, but in what they rejected. Divine authority is by its very nature self-evidencing; and one of the profoundest doctrines recovered by the Reformers is the doctrine of the inward witness of the Holy Spirit, by which testimony is borne within the believer's heart to the divine character of Holy Scripture. This witness is not confined to the individual believer, but is also accessible to the believing community; and there is no better example of its operation than in the recognition by the members of the Early Church of the books which were given by inspiration of God to stand alongside the books of the Old Covenant, the Bible of Christ and His apostles, and with them to make up the written Word of God.

Over several generations uninspired men slowly became aware of those documents which were of God. It was not a decision reached by church council or appointed committee. Councils later acknowledged the conclusion the church as a whole had reached; they did not originate the canon.

All of this took time. As the Apostle Paul said to certain governmental dignitaries concerning his ministry in the Gospel, "… this has not been done in a corner" (Acts 26:26b). The formation of the Bible as we have it was not done "in a corner." It developed historically—in the open. Although the canonization of the Scriptures was not done by inspired men, we can rest assured that the Bible was formed under the influence of God's providence working in and through devout men of faith.

(Unless noted, Bible translation used is the New American Standard Bible)